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(★)(Despite the efforts to modernize that dominated government policy after the Meiji Restoration of 1868, the position of women in society was still dictated by the feudal tenets of the preceding Tokugawa era. Women were completely subservient to male members of the family, and even after marriage their principal function was to bear and raise male heirs. A woman´s life was one of total subservience to the whims of her husband and father-in-law. She could be summarily divorced for contracting venereal disease transmitted by her own husband, and once divorced she had no right to monetary support. Neither did women have any legal or political recourse, since they were forbidden by law to hold or even attend political meetings.／ With the influx of new ideas from the West, however, and the gradual spread of education for girls, the early years of the twentieth century saw a growing number of people pressing for women´s political and social rights. Principal among these poineers were three women : Hiratsuka Raichoo, Ichikawa Fusae, and Oku Mumeo.／ The end of World War I and the ensuing peace resulted in more liberal sttitudes, which came to be characterized as Taishoo Democracy. Various women´s associations were formed, and through them, women´s voices finally came to be heard. Support for women spread, both through magazines and political meetings, even though the latter were still illegal. Most notable among these women´s associations was the Shin Fujin Kyookai [New Women´s Association], which was established by Hiratsuka Raichoo and continued by Ichikawa Fusae and Oku Mumeo.／ These three leaders of the feminist movement had startlingly different characters and backgrounds. While Hiratsuka was flamboyant and highly literate, Ichikawa was quieter and more conscious of working women´s problems. Oku, in contrast, was self-possessed and tenacious in her push for reforms for women.／ As well as being a prolific writer in the cause of women´s suffrage, Oku was an excellent organizer. To help the plight of women in their miserable working and family lives, she set up the Professional Women´s Publishing House, which published works by and for women, as well as the House for Working Women and the Women´s Settlement, which provided not only assistance but also professional training for poor working women. Throughout her life, she was an active promotor of education to enable women to become more aware of their status and potential in politics and society.／ Through the efforts of these and many other women activists, the Public Order and Police Law was finally amended in 1922 to allow women to participate in political activities, although full suffrage was not obtained until after World War II, when the law was abolished by the U.S. Occupation authorities. In 1947, Oku Mumeo was elected to the Diet as one of its first female members, and for the rest of her life she continued the struggle to improve the position of women. One of her crowning achievements was the establishment, in 1948, of the Japan Housewives Association, an organization that is still a powerful force in the consumer movement today.／ ◆Tokuza was born in Kyoto in 1932. She majored in English and American Literature at Keio University in Tokyo, and subsequently studied Speech and Theater Arts at the University of Minnesota. In 1988, she received her doctorate in Speech and Communication from the University of Michigan. She is at present professor of English and Speech Communication at Tokyo Keizai University. Between 1994 and 1996, she was president of the H.D. Thoreau Society of Japan.) |
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